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How far is it true to say that the strength and vigour of Indian history during circa AD-500-750 A.D lay in the south of the Vindhyas ?

ASPECT — I — INTRODUCTION
History glorifies those who create history. History is not perpetual possession of any one. It speaks about those who provide strength and vigour to the existing institutions at any time. If that be the case, then it can be said that the source of strength and vigour of Indian history between 500A.D. — 700 A.D. lay definitely in the south of Vindhyas. It has been rare instances in the Indian history when south occupies the centre stage while north recedes to the background. But this era was somewhat an evidence of such a position. The South not only emerged strong and pulsating with activitie but in some fields it even influenced the North.

ASPECT — II — POLITICAL SCENARIO
While North was witnessing a political slowdown after the fall of the Guptas, the South saw the emergence and strengthening of powerful empires of the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. The later Guptas specially after Skandgupta were a house in disorder. Faced with invasion like Pushyabhuthis, Vakatakas, Maukharies etc. But none could provide a strong powerful rule for long. Though one can boast of Harsha Vardhan of Pushyabhuti Dynasty who conquered a large part of the North India under his empire and also provided efficient administration but when he tried to extend his prestige beyond Vindhyas, he was defeated by the Chalukya King. Pulakesin II on the banks of River Narbada. This provided the evidence of the power which lay beyond Vindhyas and that it was an uphill task for North to control South. Pulakesin II himself was defeated by another king Narsimhavarman of the Pallava dynasty which showed that the Chalukyas were not the lone power in the South and other powers were also emerging and though they often fought among themselves mainly for Tugabhadra doats, fight which was later pined by Rashtrakutas and then Cholas, but they never made themselves so weak that a rule from north of Vindhyas can come and subdue them Neither was there any powerful ruler or dynasty in north to be able to do so.

ASPECT — III — ADMINISTRATIVE SCENARIO
While in north of Vindhyas, the efficient adminstrative set up of Guptas was largely in a state of confusion and Harsha coming only as a ray of light in otherwise dark scenario, the southern kingdom had organised a vigorous administration with due attention to army, civil administration and more importantly local administration. It was here that the foundation of a responsible and efficient local government in form of Sabha, Nagaram, Urr were laid.

The administrative division like Mandalams, Kottams, Nadus were given decentralisation of power. The king was powerful hereditary and assumed titles like Maharajadhiraja, Dharmaraja etc. He ruled with ministers (Ammaccha), Spies, Custom Officers, Local prefect & village head men (grama bhojaka) etc. They maintained powerful army with stress on cavalry and used it for even peaceful purposes like maritime trade. They were first to pay attention to a powerful Navy. While at this time north was under grip of Mal Administration, mutual rivalries and frequent invasions.

ASPECT — IV — SOCIO - ECONOMIC SCENARIO
The vigorous trade and commerce through sea route to countries of South East Asia specially had made South rich. The much in demand spices were alargely grown in South and many prosperous ports like Tamralipti, Arikamedu, Masulipatanam, Muziris etc. had developed while north India was facing decline of trade since the late Gupta period. Also with the emergence of proto-feudal economy in north during this period, the land set up was disturbed and peasantry was also declining. The prosperity of South is evident by large number of temples built and the description of travellers who visited South India.

Socially also, though the Sough had borrowed elements of the Aryan customs but it had changed mostly to suit to requirements. Thus instead of four major varnas of north, the South had two broad categories of brahmins and Non brahmins. The brahmins enjoyed respectable position. The position of women was sound and greatly honoured the education specially higher education was on rise and mathas, viharas, ghatikas played major role. Another important role was of temples which emerged as great religious, social, cultural, educational, economic and even political centre and gave employment to many and even acted as banker. This vitality in social life was somewhat lacking in North at the time where condition of women declined, Sati system emerged, caste proliferation getting deep-rooted-distrust among people increased, Hiun Tsang says that he was robbed thrice during his stay in Harsha's empire. Due to cecline of Buddhism, the monastries were waning and this affected education.

ASPECT — V — RELIGIOUS SCENARIO
This is another area where South influenced the North. As the Buddhism and Jainism were on decline in North despite Harsha's efforts, there were some forms of religion to fill the void. This was provided by the South by an improved version of the old Bhagvatism turning it into worship of Vishnu (Vaishavism) and Siva (Saivism) by the Alvars and Nayanars saints. This movement which began in the South encourged by Pallavas, Chalukyas & other dynasties temples being built to worship Shiva & Vishnu, the movement slowly developed into full fledged Bhakti Movement. The number of temples to built in the period in South and the importance they had in day to day life of everyone testifies a vigorous religious life.

ASPECT — VI — ART, ARCHITECTURE & LITERATURE
As already mentioned, the number of temples like the Shore temple, Mahabalipuram temple, Kailashnath temple. Seven Pagodas, Vaikunth Perumal temple all under Pallavas and Vishnu temples at Badamai and Aihole ( under Chalukyas) show the level of architecture attained. The foundation of Dravida and Vesara style of architecture was laid. The art of sculpture also reached a towering height. Kanchi and Badami emerged as great art & literary centres. In literature, the work of scholars like Bhavavi, Dandi, Matridatta, Ravikirti, Dignega were popular. The Pallava king Mahendra Verman, himself a great scholar, wrote Mattavilasa Prahasana. Some of Ajanta cave paintings are of this time. Hiuentsang even found many established Viharas & monastries in this period. In contrast, the north saw a period of void in architecture & literature, no major work except some of little significance.

In new of the above it is quite obvious that in the period 500 A.D. — 750 A.D. the strength & vigour of Indian historylay south of the Vindhyas.

AN ESSAY ON INDIAN FEUDALISM

ASPECT — I — CHARACTERISTICS OF FEUDALISM

1. The critical characteristics of a feudal formation are found in the social structure of early medieval India. First, it is dominated by a class of landlords who claim and collect rent from the peasants on the ground that they are owners of the land.
2. Second, we notice a class of subject, peasantry. Oviously every peasant family constitutes the smallest unit of production and after meeting its needs of subsistence pays the remainder to the landlord. Peasants actually possess the land but are compelled to pay rents in cash, kind or labour to the landlords.
3. Third, the rents and labour services are collected by the landlords not with the object of promoting production or the economic growth of the country but mainly for their own consumption. The peasants pay not because of expectations of return but because of custom, coercion, legal sanction and ideological influence.
4. Priests write religious texts which try to prove the low origins and social status of the peasants and producing classes in comparison with those who neither cultivate nor pursue any handicrafts but live on rents. Religious propaganda is backed by legal enforcement, for the landlords claim the rents and services from the peasants on the basis of the land charters granted to them by the king. If legal and religious methods fail to pay, force is also used by the landlords.
5. These are therefore extra-economic methods under which a peasant has to operate. He does not produce in response to the laws of the market and has little scope for economic growth. He functions in response to the needs of his landlord, who may take account of the interest of his overlord, the king.
6. Thus the feudalism of the period was largely concerned with collecting the surplus from the peasants mainly in kind through superior rights in their land and occasionally through forced labour, which is not found on any considerable scale before the early centuries of the Christian era and partly continues after the Turkish conquest.
7. The whole political structure was reared on land grant that both secular and religious beneficiaries developed a vested interest in the preservation of feudal principalities not only against similar rivals but also against the insurrections of the peasants.

ASPECT — II — GROWTH OF FEUDALISM

1. The process of creating a class of landlords spread unevenly in the country. The practice first appeared in Maharashtra around the beginning of the Christian era. It seems that in the fourth-fifth centuries land grants covered a good part of Madhya Pradesh. In the fifth-sixth centuries they became prominent in West Bengal and Bangladesh, in the sixth-seventh centuries in Orissa, in the seventh century in Assam, in the eighth century in Tamil Nadu and in the ninth-tenth centuries in Kerala.
2. In order to find new avenues of wealth for brahmanas and to bring virgin land under cultivation the process of land grants started in outlying, backward and tribal areas first. When it was found useful by the rulling class, it was gradually extended to mid-India or Madhyadesa which was the civilised part of the country and the epicentre of brahmanical culture and society.
3. The pre-Muslim medieval period may be regarded as the classical age of feudalism in India, for the Muslims introduced large-scale cash payment which loosened the direct control of the landed intermediaries over the peasants.

ASPECT — III — VARIOUS PHASES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Indian feudalism, however, passed through several distinct stages. The age of the Guptas and the following two centuries saw the beginning of land grants to temples and brahmanas and the number of such grants increased steadily and their nature changed basically in the kingdoms of the Palas, the pratharas and the Rastrakutas .
2. In the earlier period only usufructuary rights were generally given, but from the eighth century onwards proprietary rights were transferred to the dons. The process of grants culminated in the eleventh and twelth centuries when Northern India was parcelled into numerous political and economic units largely held by secular and religious dons, who enjoyed the gift villages as little better than fiefs.
3. But in Western and Central India the classical type of feudalism was affected by the revival of trade and urbanism, the increasing use of coins, and the disuse of forced labour.

ASPECT - IV - HOW IT IS DIFFERENT FROM ITS EUROPEON COUNTERPART

1. Although the main traits of the feudal formations appear in India between the sixth and twelth centuries which was the time bracket for the growth of European feudalism, we notice only a few similarities between Indian feudalism and its European counterpart.
2. The grant of villages to priests may be compared to the practice of giving benefices to the Church in medieval Europe. But apart from an early start the Indian feudal formation differs from the European in several other respects.
3. Unlike Europe India did not have a sharply defined class of feudal barons organised in councils and assemblies; nor did it have at least in early stages much of military feudalism.
4. What is more significant, in the Indian system, small-scale peasant plots were not tied to large-scale landowners plots legally and economically. Feudal landlords in early medieval India did not directly interest themselves in organising the cultivation of large stretches of land. Therefore in India regular labour service on the farms of the lords were not rendered by the peasants. We had mostly causal or occasional labour service required for war or construction purposes.
5. In India we do not have serfdom on any considerable scale, as it was in the case with Western Europe. We have however a subject peasantry overburdened with all kinds of taxes and obligations.
6. The economic hallmark of Indian feudalism was the absence of large farms or manors of the landlords and the prevalence of small scale peasant production. The nature of production on a peasant plot was determined as much by the fields of his own subsistence as by the tax demands of the beneficiaries. It has to be stressed that in both Europe and India the ever-present beneficiaries claimed from the peasants all kinds of dues on the strength of the royal charters issued to them, but because the peasants were in actual possession of the soil, oxen and other agricultural accessories, they could resist the increasing demands made by the new-fangled landlords.
7. This constant tug of war between the landlords and the peasants was capable of initiating fundamental changes in society. But we have very few references to outbursts of peasant antagonism. By and large peasant discontent was contained through religious and ideological propaganda. And if still the peasants found the situation unbearable they could move to virgin areas and multiply the existing units of production by founding new villages.

WERE THE CHOLA VILLAGE ASSEMBLIES DEMOCRATIC IN NATURE

ASPECT — I
Democracy during the Chola period at grass root level existed by degree - it was not absolute. Chola village assemblies were product of specific time and political culture and displayed their own variety of democracy - some of their political practices were democratic, but not all. Their democracy was intermeshed with various impeding elements

ASPECT — II
The Chola polity was a monarchy and this monarchy was absolute - a democratic institution functioning under an overacting autocratic polity had its limitations. The central government through its officers exercised general supervision & had right to interfere in the matters of village under emergency situations. So although autonomous, the village assemblies had to take into account the policies of central government. Therefore grassroots democracy was not absolute. There is a reference of an official adhikari at grassroot level which appears to have put some limitations on the functioning of assemblies.

ASPECT — III
Reading of Uttaramerur inscriptions of 919 AD & 921 AD of the reign of Parantaka - I outlines certain required eligibilities for Civil Services Aspirants who wanted to contest elections.

Prescription of property qualifications - ownership of at least 1½ acre of land and residence in one's own house built in that site (i.e. property qualification) Knowledge of Vedic literature (ic. educational qualification - which was religious in nature)
This further indicates that only Brahmins could contest elections (as during those time other castes were not supposed to read Vedas).
Relatives of criminals were debarred.
Also rule of time bar was applied i.e. those who had been on any committees for past three years were not eligible to contest elections.
Moreover in the actual functioniing of the assemblies no reference is found regarding quorum or decision by voting. All this does not indicate democracy.

ASPECT — IV
Water supplies determined to a large extent that which villages would have their assemblies and which would not. Those villages which were in the central region of Kaveri river basin were under direct Royal control, while those regions which were far away and located in drier region were autonomous & contained the self governing institutions. This was coupled by the fact that in matters of taxation local institutions had increasingly lost ground to supra village agencies / central agencies to meet the requirements of standardisation of measurement & collection. And moreover, whenever there were powerful monarch, the power of these local assemblies tended to decrease.

ASPECT — V
Thus we find that by modern parlance, in terms of eligibilities, the village assemblies cannot be called democratic. Also, from macro view, where we understand democracy to be a rule by the people, of the people & for the people, even this is not met because of the overbearing presence of ritual monarchy and the duty of these assemblies to pay due deference to wishes of the central government thus limiting the very objectives of democracy (ie. power to the people).

ABUL FAZL AS A THINKER

1. Abul Fazl was a unique political thinker in many respects. He was virtually the exponent of the Mughal Theory of kingship, as it evolved under Akbar.
2. Abul Fazl's ideas regarding kingship were strongly influenced by Iramian concepts notably the divine light or Farr-i-Izadi. He was also the exponent of the doctrine of Sulh-i-kul or Universal tolerance. Further, he projected the concept of the perfect man or Insan-i-Kamil and Imam-i-Adil or the Just King.
3. Abul Fazl maintained that kingship was an essential pre-requisite for civilised society. Man, by nature, was greedy and oppressive to that every strong person tries to exploit the weak but the king prevents this and thus ensures order and stability. In that respect the king is ritually a replica of god.
4. Abul Fazl's concept of order and stability essentially refers to a static society. He maintained that society consisted of 4 elements, akin to the Universal elements-soldiers (fire) producers (water), scholars (air) and servants (Earth). Just as the proper balance of the 4 elements ensures stability of the Universe an identical balance of the 4 classes ensures a stable society. This is achieved by ensuring that every section keeps to the functions ordained for it and does not encroach upon the rights of the others.
5. Abul Fazl makes a distinction between the True and False King. The True king is guided by God through the Farri-Izadi his personality and conduct reflect divine quality which makes him the prefect man, the Insan-i-Kamil.
6. Since God does not discriminate among his subjects on sectarian grounds, the true king also extends the benefits of his good govt. on all his subjects alike. This is possible only by adhering to Sulh-i-kul or total peace, implying Peace with all or Universal Tolerance. By following this concept the ruler attains the status of Imam-i-Adil, the just leader or Ideal king.
7. The False king is not divinely inspired. Instead he works according to his personal desire and interest. As such his policies do not benefit the subjects and his reign is marked by tensions and political upheavals.
8. Abul Fazl's concepts is in some ways similar to the later contractualist thinkers such as Hobbes and Locke. His description of struggle between man and man is strikingly similar to the state of nature where man's life was nasty, brutish and short. However, he finds the remedy not in a social contract but in Divine will.
9. Another striking feature about Abul Fazl's theory is that he does not abandon the ideas of earlier Islamic thinkers. Instead he interprets these in a more liberal context. Ideally the ruler was expected to provide for the welfare of the muslim subjects by the earlier thinkers. For Abul Fazl the subjects include all the people living in the kingdom. He thus gave a more liberal and non-sectarian interpretation to the ideas of early Islamic jurists.

RISE OF GANDHI TO NATIONAL LEADERSHIP

1. Gandhi's personal traits, his great organising capacity, his concern for masses, novel political ideology and methods and his extensive political-social outlook all combined to produce a powerful and enduring impact on people's minds and the course of the freedom struggle. The Cumulative effect was his emergence to national leadership and establishment of his ideological hegemony over the entire course of the national movement till attainment of independence.
2. The novelty value of his psolitical methods — Satyagraha, Marches, Civil Disobedience etc. had caught the imagination of the masses and leaders alike. More significantly the efficacy of these methods were already proved at various occasions, they had given exciting results. This facilitated his rise as a leader of great stature.
3. Gandhi's comprehensive political outlook and his encyclopaedic interests added to his popularity. His concern for Hindu-Muslim unity, upliftment of Harijan and end of exploitation and emancipation of depressed & exploited was manifestation of his broad political outlook.
4. His pledge to fight against the entire forces of colonialism and imperialism and not merely the British rule (to him it was an expression of those forces) had something unique about his political approach. This was his attempt, in a sense, to unearth fundamental concept of exploitation. This had special attraction to workers & peasants etc.
5. South African experiment of Gandhi contributed to his rise in manifold ways. His heroic and prolonged struggle for the rights of Indians there had brought to the fore his great organising capacity and his capacity to work for the larger interests of the people. The struggle had added his popularity as a leader.
6. The impressions people gathered about him was varied. He came to be looked as a miracle worker, a saviour etc. This helped in the arousal of hopes of people and contributed in a way, in his acceptance by the people.
7. In addition, for Gandhi, the South African Experiment proved to be a phase of gaining political experience. To him, this was a phase of evolution and consummation of his political methods. This offered an opportunity for a trial of his strategies. And their success infused in him the confidence in their strength and efficacy. The significance of this lies in their effective and successful use in India.
8. Indian masses had mixed feelings about the working and successfulness of ideologies and methods of various political groups operating in the Indian political scene during the time
   
   the repeated failures of various groups and ideologies. It had caused a sense of disillusionment with these groups. Gandhi appeared as a leader subscribing to neither the Moderate nor the Militant bias. His name was not associated with any existing political group. The effect was a healthy one — he could make a fresh start and could receive an all - India welcome.
9. Gandhi's deep concern for the masses, his total identification with masses, his being firmly rooted in Indian soil was one significant factor in his rise. He was closely associated with the things which were already the parts of the consciousness and psyche of the Indian people. His ideals of non-violence, celibacy, strengthening of spiritual stamina, attainment of extra-ordinary super-physical powers, invocation of traditional methods & symbols had great appeal to the masses. His use of vernacular, wearing of loin cloth, discarding sacred thread as a token of protest against discrimination against Shudras brought him closer to people, He became one among them — a symbol of India's poverty and hardship of common people.
10. To all these were added his simplicity, austere habits and saintly grace. This became the real strength of Gandhi as a leader and he came to be a popular leader, the leader of masses.
11. Gandhi, when he began his political work in India was relieved of the great task of building a political platform and Indian National Congress as a pan-Indian forum was already in existence and it had some political work and achievements to its credit. Nationalist and anti-imperialistic sentiments had long begun to permeate Indian masses and made impact. The overall political situation was ripe for a leader of some sense, of political sagacity and capacity to work and to exploit. Gandhi could harness the existing political situation to the benefits of the country and the people.
12. From the very beginning of his political career in India he met success after success — Champaran, Kheda, Ahmedabad Satyagraha bears testimony to this fact. The result of his initial success was recognition of his organizing capacity & political ability, acceptance by the people, and massive following. And this was from this 'following' that he drew immense strength and which made him stand atop.

Why did the FRENCH Revolution occur in France and not elsewhere

1. A study of the condition of Europe and that of France on the eve of the French Revolution proves that the condition of the French people as a whole was in no way worse than the condition of the people of other European countries. This poses the question as to why then the Revolution occurred in France and not elsewhere.
2. The condition of the French peasantry was far better than those in Prussia or Russia. There was no general serfdom in France except in the Abbey of St. Claude. Even the serfs of St. Claude were in a happier condition than the German serfs. Their person was free, they could marry freely and they could emigrate. The only restriction on them was that they could not sell the land. The rest of the French peasants were independent. They hoped for better days.
3. The main cause of their discontent was unequal taxation and occasional corvee. But the German, Polish and the Hungarian peasants on the contrary had no personal plot of land, no freedom to marry and no right to move freely. They had to serve between 3-6 days per week in lords' land as corvee. Their condition was no better than Negro slaves in America.
4. In France the political power of the feudal nobility had been broken. But in Germany and Eastern Europe the nobles possessed great authority.
5. Next to England, France had the most numerous, prosperous, intelligent and enlightened middle class. But in Central and Eastern Europe middle class formed an insignificant factor in the population.
6. Even if the French monarchy was bankrupt, the nation was prosperous. Though the French monarchy was despotic, the monarchies of Prussia and Russia were not less despotic.
7. Yet, it was in France that the ancien regime was first to go to pieces. There are many reasons for this.
8. As the material wellbeing of the average French men was better than their neighbours, this prosperity gave them the power to be critical of their government. It is often found in history that a people enjoying certain rights become conscious of more rights. The French peasant was ground down to slavery. It was because the French peasant was more independent, more wealthy and better educated than the German serfs, that he resented the political and social privileges of his landlord and the payment of rent. His very prosperity gave him the courage.
9. In France the feudal lords enjoyed certain rights and privileges without corresponding duties. Rechelieu had destroyed the political power of the French nobility and exempted them from duties while they retained their privileges. But outside France the nobles had to fight and keep law and order in exchange of the rights they enjoyed. In France the nobility and rights but no duties which appeared as an anachronism,. Hence the privileges of the French nobles appeared to be unjst and unreasonable.
10. The revolution occurred in France because there was a wealthy intelligent and enlightened middle class who gave leadership to the peasants and workers. These bourgeoisie were influenced by the philosophical doctrines. They resented the social inequalities and privileges of the nobility. They demanded reforms of the ancient regime. They hated the special privileges and status of the nobility, many of whom were inferior to them in wealth and learning. This contrast between classes was so sharp and irritating that the bourgeois were eager to wipe it. It was the French bourgeois who precipitated the revolution.
11. France was more exposed to the influence of the philosophers than any other country of Europe. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot exposed the fallacies of the ancient regime, criticized the old institutions, destroyed the respect for traditions and custom. They created the mental revolution which was followed by material revolution. No other country of Europe had so fertile growth of philosophical thought in that age and no other country had an educated middle class to swallow them as a France.
12. The French monarchy was weaker than other despots of Europe. Louis XV due to his licentiousness and lack of talent sapped the strength of the monarchy. Louis XVI lacked resolution, will and firmness which were necessary in a desperate situation. The weakness of the monarchy of France prepared the way for the Revolution.
13. The French monarchy became bankrupt due to numerous financial blunders. Other monarchies of Europe were not so poor. Absolute monarchy must be powerful and prosperous for its continuance. The poverty of the French monarchy shattered its prestige and compelled it to appeal to the nation for new taxes which gave the signal for the revolution.
14. Under historical circumstances Frenchmen became exposed to the influences of the English and the American revolutions. The ideas of Locke and the Declaration of the American Independence permeated the French mind more than other people of the European continent.
    
    Hence the old regime first went to pieces in France.